verandrecaj@yahoo.co.uk
1. Introduction
The aim of this study is
to identify, describe and justify the methods and methodology used to address
the research question. The study also explains and evaluates appropriate philosophical methodology,
including epistemology and ontology. This
evaluation will show which particular position is relevant or appropriate to
this research and how it will inform the nature and quality of the conclusion. In addition, this study will focus on data
collection and analytical techniques, and explain how appropriate
are for the research topic. Quantitative and
qualitative research methods will be the heart of the study, both are important
and the differences between qualitative and quantitative methods will be
explored in depth. It also will address ethical issues.
This study will critically evaluate
an existing literature on methods and methodology. Specially, focusing in
knowledge development and nature of the knowledge on the concept of ‘Social
innovation’ despite the fact that It is complex and wide broad topic, involves various elements but the most important are people
and resources (Mulgan et al., 2006). The purpose of the research is to
understand how social innovation concept is understood? Is it desirable or
feasible idea? Inherent in this exploration is an understanding of the questions
shown in Table 1 (Appendix). This requires a very good strategy, clear
approach, right techniques and methods, right procedures and ethicality. The major concern will be validity
(Sapsford and Jupp, 1998) this means that, the design of the research will
provide credible conclusion.
The research framework known as “onion” (Saunders et al, 2006) will allowed the researcher to have a full view
of different ways of carrying out the research, in order to distinguish the
varied types of philosophises, strategy, tactic, approach, techniques,
procedure, and methods. However, Guba and Lincoln, (1994) argued that,
questions of research methods are of secondary important to questions of which
paradigm is applicable to the research. Qualitative and quantitative methods may be
used appropriate with the research paradigm (Burrell and Morgan, 1979).
However, this research will view the guides of the investigation, not only in
choices of methods but also in ontological and epistemological fundamental way.
Saunders et al., (2010) suggested that, clear understanding of theories and
philosophies at beginning of the research process raises the important
questions concerning the research design.
Although, Social Innovation concept is
straightforward component of the social science, especially sociology (Howaldt
and Schwarz, 2010) it cannot be only investigated and indicated from the level
of comprehension, but also be engendered and shaped in term of its social and
societal preconditions, and repercussion. The role of social science in shaping
and examine social innovation is an important issue in the international
scientific discussion on social innovation. In this context it is complex and
wide broad topic, therefore understanding research philosophy position is
crucial (Easterby-Smith, 2008) because it can help to clarify research design
(Blaikie, 1993; Hassard and Parker 1993; Easterby-Smith 2008; Saunders et al.,
2009), indicate the limitations of particular approach and suggest how to adapt
research design according to the constrains of different subject or knowledge
structure (Easterby-Smith et al., (2008). However, Saunders et al., (2007)
highlight the importance of understanding research philosophies in context of
knowledge development, the way that individuals view the world has an impact on
research quality and outcome. Ackroyd and Hughes (1992) argued that,
philosophical guidance can never resolve the problems of social research. But on the other hand, Crotty (1998)
explained that, philosophy has its own way of being interested in the world,
its own problems to solve by its lights, and these are not those of empirical
sociology.
However, Saunders et al
(2009) stated that,
” The research philosophy ...contains important assumption
about the way in which you view the world” (2009:101).
This assumption will
underpin the research strategy and methods chosen as part of the strategy
(ibid). Nevertheless,
epistemology and ontology philosophies will be summarised because are relevant
to this study and each contains important differences between each other that
will influence the way in which the researcher thinks about the research
process (Saunders, et al., 2009). Epistemology generates set of assumptions
about the best ways of inquiring in to the nature of the world (Crotty 1998;
Easterby-Smith et al., 2008; Saunders et al., 2009). Whereas, ontology define that, the fundamental category of
reality, (Schwandt, : Crotty, 1998). However, this
view is criticised by Easterby-Smith et al., (2008), they think that, ordering
of terms leads to the confusion because ontological concerns are more
fundamental, and epistemological decisions follow from determination of
ontology. Epistemology
of social science is focus with ‘facts’ or ‘resources’ (Remenyi et al., 1998)
it defines how we can know the reasons of that reality (Schwandt, ) and what it means to know
(Crotty, 2003). However, Saunders et al., (2009) defined epistemology as a
“... branch
of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge and what constitutes
acceptable knowledge in a field of study” (2010:102)
The philosophy
of Epistemology will be considered in this study in order to discover and have
a better understanding of the concept (gain knowledge), and also, to enable the
researcher for further investigation on existence of social innovation reality.
Positivism, realism, and interpretivism are three epistemological philosophies
(Saunders et al., 2006) laboured by Easterby-Smith et al (2008) as positivism,
relativism, and social constractivism, all have views about the way in which knowledge is developed and judged as being
acceptable (Collis and Hussey, 2003). This research will analyse all these epistemological
philosophies in order to have a better understanding of methodological
implication of different epistemologies within social innovation concept, and
make e clear picture what is going to the outcome of the research is it
causality (positivism), is it correlation (relativism) or is it understanding
of the ‘world’ (social constractivism).
The research
‘resource’ is embracing what is called the positivist position to the
development of the knowledge (Remenyi et al., (1998). For the epistemological
position the social world exists externally and that all data should be
measured through objective methods (Comte, 1853: cited by Easterby-Smith et
al., 2008).However, Remenyi et al., (1998) explained that, this philosophical
position works with an observable
social reality. Although, Gill and Johnson, (2002) argued that,
positivist research is highly structured methodology, it is inflexible
(Easterby-Smith et al., 2008),
emphasis are on quantifiable observation (Saunders et al., 2009). Perlesz and Lindsay (2003) explained
that, through positivist approach the research develops a relative ontology and
a subjective epistemology. It also assumes the role of an objective analysis
and progressively making separate interpretation concerning data generated in
an value-free manner and the assumption is that “...the researcher is
independent of and neither affected nor is affected by the subject of the
research” (Remenyi et al., 2000, p. 33). Positivism claim to be value free,
rather stronger than of the ‘feeling’. However, the research approach will not
only be from positivist perspective because there is not truth or absolute
reality to discover, this suggests a likely approach of interpretivism, social
constractivism, and interactivism (Mertens, 1998; Denzin, 2001; Aram and
Salipanter, 2003). However, positivism is potentially fast economic, can
provide wide coverage, and also, easy to provide justification of policies
(Easterby-Smith et al., 2008).
Another branch
of epistemology is realism that is similar to positivism; it assumes a
scientific approach to the development of the knowledge (Saunders et al .,
2009) Realism is the “epistemological position that objects exist
independently of our knowledge of their existence” (Saunders et al., 2010:
105). However, Bhaskar (1989)
argued that, we would only be able to understand what is going on in the real
world if we understand the social structures that have given rise to the
phenomena we are trying to understand. The critical realist’s position is that
the knowledge of realty is a result of social condition and cannot be understood
independently in social actors involved in social derivation process (Dobson,
2002). However, from the relativist position is difficult to gain direct access
to ‘reality’, this mean that the multiply perspective will be adapted thought
both triangulation of methods and the surveying of views and experiences to
large sampling (Easterby-Smith et
al.,2008). However, Teagarden (1995) has criticized relativist position because
it is uncomfortable for academic researcher, it gives primacy to positivistic
methods. This epistemological approach required large samples and also cannot
accommodate institutional and cultural differences, which mean that it may not
be suitable for this research because culture is one of the key elements of
investigation. However, it could be adapted with other epistemological
philosophies in order to get as best result as possible. For instance; this
approach generate efficiency including outsourcing potential which might be
necessary for this study, for the reason that, it is focus in different groups
of society and required different tools and techniques of data collection such
as survey, interview, and observation.
It is
necessarily for the researcher to understand differences between human in our
role as social actors (Saunders et al., 2010) this suggest interpretivism
approach. This means that, the interpreter objectifies that which is to be
interpreted, in the sense the interpreter remains unaffected by and external to
the interpretative process (Schwandt, ). However, Guban and Lincoln (1994) explained that,
the role of interpetivism is to look for subjective reality of the focus groups
in order to make sense of and identify their motives, actions and intentions in
a meaningful way. However the
challenging here is to enter the social world of the research subjects and
understand the world from interpretivism point of view. The epistemological
philosophy is employed in this study to enable the researcher for deep and
broader understanding of the topic.
Another
research philosophy related to this study is ontology. (Crotty, 2003) suggested that,
epistemological issues and ontological issues tend to emerge together. Ontology is study of ‘being’ it is
concerted with ‘what is’ (Blaikie, 1993; Crotty, 2003) with the nature of reality
(Saunders et al., 2010). For domain ontology each research fields has its own
epistemology (Schwandt, )
For instance: The map applied by biologist is different from maps applied by
the sociology. This study will have explicit and implicit hypothesis about
categories of reality that are fundamental and related in the human and social
system studies (ibid). It enables the researcher to raise questions regarding
to way the world operates and have specific view (Adrianse and Voodjik, 2005). However, Schwandt,
( ) clarified that, formal
ontology is to say something general about reality but domain ontology say
something specific about different areas of the reality.
The first
aspect of ontology is objectivism, which holds that social entitles exists in reality
external to social actors, whereas subjectivist view is that social phenomena
are created from the perceptions and consequent actions to social actors
(Saunders et al 2010). But on the other hand, Bourdieu (1987) treated social
facts as things, which mean that, objectivism, uncover the objective system of
relations that determine the conduct and representation of individuals.
Ontological philosophy of subjectivism takes these individuals representations
as its basis (Stone, 2003).
However, Bourdieu (1987; 1994) has identified the dialectical
relationship between objectivism and subjectivism. However, in the subjectivist viewpoint Remenyi, (1998)
highlighted the importance of study of “…the details of the situation to
understand the reality…” (1998:35), both ontological philosophies will be
consider in this research because objectivist tends to view the ‘culture’ of
the organisation (Smircich, 1983). Subjectivism will be employed because it is
associated with the term of social constructivism (Easterby-Smith et al., 2008;
Saunders et al., 2010), which will enable the researcher to view the reality as
being socially constructed. Social constructivism or ‘social reality’ (Searle,
1995), which is ontologically subjective (Remenyi et al., 1998) and epistemologically
objective (Searle, 1995), this philosophical approach has ability to look at
how change processes over the time, to understand peoples’ meanings, to
implement new idea, is flexible and good for theory generation, and also data
collection are less artificial (Easterby-Smith et al, (2008). But on the other
hand it is time consuming and expensive, is difficult to analyse data analysis
because this philosophy generate qualitative data which is hard to control
their pace, progress and end points (ibid).
It is
difficult for the researcher at the earliest stages to predict which research
approach is suitable for the research questions. According to Tsoukas (1994)
change will occur in all systems, groups or individuals because of the inherent
nature of changes in all human activities. However, this research is likely to
be conducted from mixed methods because it will provide more perspectives on
the phenomena being investigated (Fielding and Fielding, 1986) both qualitative
and quantitative data collection techniques are used, and also mixed method
enable triangulation to take place (Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003). Although,
Smith (1975) clarified that, qualitative and quantitative data collection
techniques and analyses procedures each have their strength and weakness. But, Burrell and Morgan, (1979); Punch,
(1986); and Bulmer, (1988) argued that, where it comes to the choice of
specific methods, and to the issues of the specific design the distinction
break down (Eaterby-Smith et al., 2008).
Identifying
and understanding the relationship between multiply realities of the concept of
social innovation will start to revel the “…underlying patterns and order of
the social world…” (Morgan, 1980:609). The nature of the research is
exploratory and descriptive (Robson, 2002). Exploratory research is flexible
and adaptable (Saunders et al., 2010).
The flexibility inherent in exploratory research does not mean absence
of direction to enquiry (Adam and Schvaneveldt, 1991). Descriptive research in
this case will be extension of exploratory research suggested by (Saunders et
al., 2010). This will be useful to portrait an accurate profile of particular
event or situation (Robson, 2002) that might be related to the research.
Social
innovation is complex topic that involved various groups of society; therefore,
the first step in sampling is to define the population interest clearly and
accurately (Sapsford and Jupp 1998).
“A sample is a set of element selected in some way from population”
(Sapsford and Jupp, 1998: 25), it is element of statistical process concerned
with selection of individuals or group of people observation. The advantages of using sampling are;
low cost, faster process of data collection, and also improve accuracy and
quality of the data (Sapsford and Jupp, 1998; Easterby-Smith et al.,
2010;Saunders et al., 2010). However, it is difficult to target all population
because cost is to high and the population is dynamic (Ader et al., 2008) The
focus will be in small samples of different groups no less than 30 people from
group, the aim is to involved more than 500 participant and get 10% responses.
The researcher will target different levels and different group ages of the
Wales society such as; student, teachers, 10 top companies in Wales from
private and public sectors, Wales Assemble Government (WAG), and unemployed,
elderly and young people which plays a important role in society, they are
actors, to enable the researcher to find out what is understood of different
groups of social innovation, does it have impacts in there lives and how? Does
it meets society needs, (Mulgan 2006) what is their role in this process and
why? And so what, future trends? It is crucial for the researcher to get
sampling right because sample data depend on the relationship between the
sample and the population (Easterby-Smith et al., 2008).
The researcher
is aware of issues related to gain access with the above groups and research
ethics. Therefore different strategies are evaluated in order to gain physical
access (Gummesson, 2000), access to intend participants, and continuing access
in order to carry out further investigation of the research (Marshall and
Rossman, 1999; Gummesson, 2000), and also cognitive access to enable the
researcher to get sufficiently close to find out valid and reliable data, in
order to meet objectives of the research (Saunders et al., 2010). Nevertheless,
Marshall and Rossman, (1999); Sekaran, (2003); and Blumberg, (2005) highlighted
the importance of feasibility.
Overcoming access issues, and meets research objectives the strategy
suggested by Saunders al., (2010) is implemented. The strategy is to use
existing and develop new contacts, provide a clear picture of the research
purpose and types of access require in order to ascertaining credibility, and
also using suitable language is important point of the research despite the
fact that discourse analysis (linguistic investigation) is not in focus of the
study.
Research ethics are considerate as
“…moral principals…” Blumberg et al., (2005:92). However, it will be affected
by the social norms (Zikmund,
2000). Code of ethics is considered from the firs stage of research process,
research topic formulation, continuing with research design and gaining access,
data collection, data processing and analysis, and also reporting findings.
Healy (2001); Horwood and Moon (2003); Jack (2006); Easterby-Smith et al (2008)
and Saunders et al., (2010) suggested the key principals of the research ethics
such as; no harm comes to participants, respecting dignity of participants,
protecting the privacy and confidentiality, anonymity of participants, honesty
and transparency, and avoid misleading of research findings. However, Snell
(1993) indicates this, ethical issues are extremely complex. Bell and Bryman
(2007) explained that, most of ethical issues are small-scale, incremental and
ambitious.
Research
design will be broad-based methods; data collection and analysis will be guided
primary by the grounded theory, or inductive perspective (Glaser and Stuart, 1967).
The strategy of grounded theory is the, whereby the collection, examination,
and process of continual re-examination of data will determine the research
findings (Saunders et al., 2010).
Qualitative methods will be conducted in form of case study, in order to
create in-depth rich account (Rubin and Rubin, 1995; Scholz and Tietje, 2002;
Yin, 2003) and rich understanding of the context of the research (Morris and
Wood, 2001). The case study strategy suggested by (Yin, 2003); Saunders et al,
2010) has ability to generate answers for the question ‘why?’ as well as the
‘what?’ and ‘how?’ However, case study strategy is criticised from positivists
view because they do not have inflexibility of natural scientific design,
rarely allows generalisations to be made from specific cases to general
population, and produce loads of data that allows for any interpretation
(Easterby-Smith et al., 2008). Although, Yin (2002) suggested that, all case
studies should have clear designs created before any data is collected, but
also are concerns about validity of the data which may contain the same degree
of validity as more positivist studies (ibid). But on the other hand, qualitative case study is less
concerned about the validity, and more concern with providing rich picture.
However, in
order to generate quantitative data the research will conduct a combination of
various data collection techniques and tools such as; semi-structured
interview, focus group, observation, and questioners. However, Robson, (2002) argued that questionnaires are not for exploratory or
other type of research which required a large numbers of open-ended questions,
but it works better with standardise question that can be confident and will be
interpreted in same way by all respondents. But on the other hand, Gill &
Johnson (2002) have pointed that questionnaire are useful method for
descriptive and exploratory research.
Easterby-Smith
et al., (2008); Saunders et al., 2010; Burns, (2001) suggested triangulate
multiply sources of the data. Triangulation is a useful framework that helps to
find out the meaning of the data.
Leach (1990) described quantitative data by the term ‘empiricism’, but
(Duffy, 1985) has described as’positivism’. However, Cormack, (1991) clarified
that, it derives from the scientific method used in physical science. Dewey (1993); Healey & Rawlinson (1994) have drew distinction
between qualitative and quantitative data; quantitative data is based on
meaning of numbers, collection results in numerical and standardises data, and analysis
conducted through the use of diagrams and statistics. Qualitative data based on
meaning of expressed through words, collections results in non-standardised
data requiring classification into categories, and analysis conducted through
the use of conceptualisation.
Saunders et al., (2007) have identify techniques of analyses of
quantitative data such as graph, charts, and statistics and explained the
importance of using these techniques to explore, present, describe and examine
relationships and trends within our data. However Robson (2002; 393) argue this
by defining qualitative data as a”... a field where is not at all difficult to
carry out an analysis which is simply wrong, or inappropriate for your
purposes. And the negative side of readily available analysis software is that
it becomes that much easier to generate elegantly presented rubbish”.
However, is an ongoing
debate between social and natural science fields regarding to research
philosophies and approaches, non of the views have proven that one is better
than other, each have own limitations.
Epistemology
and ontology philosophies are relevant to this study and each contains
important differences between each other that will influence the way in which
the researcher thinks about the research process (Saunders, et al., 2009).
Epistemology generates set of assumptions about the best ways of inquiring in
to the nature of the world (Crotty 1998; Easterby-Smith et al., 2008; Saunders
et al., 2009). Whereas, ontology
define that, the fundamental category of reality, (Schwandt,
: Crotty, 1998). Despite the limitations epistemological approaches will
be employed in this study.
Positivism, realism, and interpretivism are three epistemological
philosophies (Saunders et al., 2006) laboured by Easterby-Smith et al (2008) as
positivism, relativism, and social constructivism, all have views about the way in which knowledge is developed
and judged as being acceptable (Collis and Hussey, 2003). Therefore, it can be argued that there is no one best
method of developing knowledge and that exclusively valuing one method
restricts the ability to progress beyond its inherent boundaries. However, positivism is
potentially fast economic, can provide wide coverage, and also, easy to provide
justification of policies (Easterby-Smith et al., 2008). This is associated
with quantitative data that is hard to control there pace, progress and end
points. But, on the other hand social constructivism is good for
process and meanings, flexible and good for theory generation and most
importantly generates less artificial data (ibid)
Qualitative and quantitative data are different,
both have recognised strength and weakness, one approach is not superior to
other and are use in combination for best result. Other limitations of the research are time constrain, and lack of resources
(financial and human) because it is a large project therefore these resources
are crucial. Social innovation is a new concept therefore is not enough
literature out there; this may be able to limit the reliability and validity of
secondary data. Another challenging of the research will be to achieve sampling
size because the population is dynamic and could be high cost as a result of
the geographic position of the targeted groups. And also will be difficult to
get access to all stakeholders and may affect the validity and credibility of
the data.
Recognizing the tension between
researchers about quantitative and qualitative research, and attempting to
understand it, may serve to create relevant and distinctive modes of enquiry in
this research. From examining research in this study, qualitative approaches
appear to be invaluable for the exploration of subjective experiences of people,
while quantitative methods facilitate the development of quantifiable
information. Combating the strengths of the methods in triangulation, if time
and money permits, results in the creation of even richer and deeper research
findings. This study will discovers and uses different methodologies, it will
assist in creating the necessary balance in the knowledge required to develop
organizational research as both a science and an art.
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